Theories and Concepts in HR Management: Theories of Employee Motivation

                    A BRIEF LOOK AT SOME THEORIES OF MOTIVATION

As school leaders we are bound to get things done through our staff. We often leverage motivation as a key to quality completion of the jobs performed by employees and consistency in the work without a loss in the quality.

Although we seem to realize how important it is to instill motivation in employees, we poorly practice it and do not apply it in an organized manner. As educators we should appreciate how simple and complex a human nature can be and apply this fact as a prerequisite to effective employee motivation in the workplace and therefore effective management and leadership. Needless to say, well motivated employees are more productive and creative. I think the opposite holds the truth as well.

The article “One More Time: How Do You Motivate Employees by Frederick Herzberg” talks about the effective ways, the difficulties, the non-working ways of motivating employees. It simply starts with the most direct ways of motivation such as “ask”, “tell”, “offer some incentives”, and “show”. He mentions KITA next, on the condition that none of the ways works. KITA means a kick in the pants. The writer simply indicates that KITA leads movement and does not motivate the employees.

MYTHS ABOUT MOTIVATION

Companies usually resort to positive KITAs, ranging from reducing time spent at work to employee counseling. Herzberg points out that although a KITA might produce some change in behavior, it doesn't motivate. He briefly touches on the following KITA applications.

Reducing time spent at work usually includes time off as a reward, recreation programs, sabbaticals, etc. Compensation often includes pay increases, stock options, bonuses, commission incentives, 401K contribution, etc. Benefits include health insurance, free food, limited work week, work at home. Human relations training focuses on supervisors being trained in psychological approaches to management. Communication places an emphasis on training programs, newsletters, other publications, and annual performance reviews. Two-way communication emphasizes listening to employees’ complaints and suggestions, democracy in the workplace, interactive performance reviews. Job participation gives importance to communicate the importance of the job in the big picture and giving achievement awards.

Sensitivity training talks about supervisors being trained to be sensitive to the needs of their subordinates. Employee counseling allows employees unburden themselves in psychological counseling.

HYGIENE VS. MOTIVATORS

This theory was first drawn from an analysis of the interviews of 200 engineers and accountants in the Pittsburgh area in the USA. According to this theory, people work first and foremost in their own self-enlightened interest, for they are truly happy and mentally healthy through work accomplishment. This theory suggests that factors involved in producing job satisfaction (and motivation) are different from the factors that lead to job dissatisfaction (hygiene). The growth or motivator factors that are intrinsic to the job are: achievement, recognition of achievement, the work itself, responsibility, and growth or advancement. The dissatisfaction-avoidance or hygiene (KITA) factors that are extrinsic to the job include: company polity and administration, supervision, interpersonal relationships, working conditions, salary, status, and security. The Exhibit I on page 7 concludes that all the factors contributing to job satisfaction, 81% were motivators. And of all the factors contributing to the employees’ dissatisfaction over their work, 69% involved hygiene elements.

Herzberg argues that an employee with an internal generator needs no KITA. Achievement, recognition for achievement, the work itself, responsibility, and growth or advancement motivate people. The author cites research showing that those intrinsic factors are distinct from extrinsic, or KITA, elements that lead to job dissatisfaction. Jobs can be changed and enriched. Managers should focus on positions where people's attitudes are poor. The investment needed in industrial engineering is cost effective, and motivation will make a difference in performance.

The motivation-hygiene theory suggests that work be enriched to bring about effective utilization of personnel. Such a systematic attempt to motivate employees by manipulating the motivator factors is just beginning. The term job enrichment describes this embryonic movement. Job enrichment provides the opportunity for the employee’s psychological growth.  

Herzberg promotes a combined approach which takes the use of two factors, hygiene and motivators, into consideration. Hygiene factors ensure employees are not dissatisfied; the motivation factors motivate employees for higher performance.

OTHER THEORIES OF MOTIVATION VS HYGIENE&MOTIVATORS

Expectancy Theory

The expectancy theory says that individuals have different sets of goals and can be motivated if they have certain expectations. This theory is about choice, it explains the processes that an individual undergoes to make choices. Motivation is a combination of:

• Valence: The value of the perceived outcome (What's in it for me?)
• Instrumentality:  The belief that if I complete certain actions then I will achieve the outcome. (Clear path?) 
• Expectancy: The belief that I am able to complete the actions. (My capability?)

Equity theory:

This theory of motivation focuses on the principle of balance or equity. This theory demonstrates that the individuals are concerned both with their own rewards and also with what others get in their comparison. Employees expect a fair and equitable return for their contribution to their jobs. Employees decide what their equitable return should be after comparing their inputs and outcomes with those of their colleagues. Employees who perceive themselves as being in an inequitable scenario will attempt to reduce the inequity either by distorting inputs and/or outcomes psychologically, by directly altering inputs and/or outputs, or by quitting the organization.

Goal Setting Theory

This theory states that goal setting is essentially linked to task performance. Goals indicate and give direction to an employee about what needs to be done and how much efforts are required to be put in. Goal setting theory is a technique used to raise incentives for employees to complete work quickly and effectively. It leads to better performance by increasing motivation and efforts, but also through increasing and improving the feedback quality. But, if the employee lacks skills and competencies to perform actions essential for goal, then the goal-setting can fail and lead to undermining of performance.

SUMMARY

School leaders need to make sure that they put hygiene factors in place to be able to create existence of motivation. Although they do not lead to a long-term positive satisfaction, in the absence of hygiene factors at school, then they will lead to dissatisfaction. These factors are extrinsic to work. Also called dissatisfiers or maintenance factors, if hygiene factors are reasonably well established at the school level, they appease the employees’ complaints and avoid their dissatisfactions. Hygiene factors set the stage for the teachers to be able to play their teaching role. Think about a soccer game. Both teams are ready; the weather is perfectly suitable for a game. The field has been maintained well. The stadium is full of spectators. They support their teams in their bests. The rest is left to the players to make it fun for their fans. Players have nothing to complain and worry about. Hygiene factors for school staff may include:

Salary - There should be a salary scale which clearly indicates that the teacher compensation is given based on well-established criteria. If there is a performance based pay system, it should be well articulated and documented for employee understanding. Employees should know what they are expected of to acquire highest pay raise.

It is really hard to provide equity for salaries in a work environment especially in charter schools. I remember hiring some employees for high demand positions such as special education, science and math teachers, also foreign language teachers without adhering to the salary scale. At the time of emergency, I avoid salary scale. Or, I should incorporate that into the salary scale for other to see which will avoid others’ asking why some staff members are getting paid more.

Company policies and administrative policies- The company policies should not only be protecting employer rights and be too rigid. They should be fair and clear. The policies should include the things that will take employees’ needs and emergencies into consideration. Thanks to charter school laws, we have much flexibility for adopting our own school policies and rules. But still, charters contract with their employees to work more hours and more work than their counterparts at traditional public schools under union contracts.

Fringe benefits- The employees should be offered all benefits that are offered elsewhere. Charter schools cannot be on par with traditional public schools in terms of fringe benefits. Their medical and dental plan offer more affordable premiums for their employees. Unfortunately, funding inequalities cause charters not to be able to match traditional public schools when it comes to comparable employee benefits.

Physical working conditions- The working conditions should be safe, clean and hygienic. The building should offer good ventilation system and effective hearing and cooling system. Most charter schools are housed in old schools which presents lack of adequate HVAC systems which significantly affect employee performance. Back in winter of 2001, I still remember our school’s 10 grade English teacher’s complaining about how cold it was in class. She said “I don’t even feel my feet.” What motivation would be more effective than providing a warm classroom where the teacher would comfortably teach?

How would a teacher feel if she finds out that both copy machines are out of order and she needs to copy urgently? Or the teacher lounge lacks coffee which is the fuel of teachers? Or the school does not have  electrical wiring powerful enough to be able operate three machines such as copy machine, coffee machine and toast machine at a time? It certainly blows the teacher’s fuse. How would we make his/her day from that moment on?

If the school does not have adequate parking space and teachers need to park in the streets, this is certainly not a motivation! There may not be security cameras inside and outside of the school building. This, for sure, does not provide comforting situation for teachers either.

Status- The employees’ status within the organization should be familiar and retained.

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Interpersonal relations- The relationship of the employees with his peers, superiors and subordinates should be appropriate and acceptable. There should be no conflict or humiliation element present.

Job Security- The organization must provide job security to the employees. Rather than offering one year contract, charter schools should offer a contract for multiple years.

According to Herzberg, the hygiene factors cannot be regarded as motivators. The motivational factors yield positive satisfaction. These factors are inherent to work. These factors motivate the employees for a superior performance. These factors are called satisfiers. These are factors involved in performing the job. Employees find these factors intrinsically rewarding. The motivators symbolized the psychological needs that were perceived as an additional benefit. Motivational factors include:

Recognition- School leaders should take and seek every opportunity to praise and recognize their staff members. This includes employee of the month, gift card giving, bonus giving, e-mail message to all for that particular employee, recognizing the employee through school’s intercom system, recognition during staff meetings, or school wide meeting before students, a letter from the school board for that employee, early dismissal, an extra personal day, a free lunch, a free ticket to his/her favorite sport games, sending the employee to professional development training of her/his choice for two days, etc.

Sense of achievement- The employees must have a sense of achievement. In order for employees to feel that, they must own the goals of their school as theirs, and school’s success as theirs. It is important that school leaders promote collaborative work, shared decision making, critical thinking, creative ideas, school culture building activities, employee morale building activities, empowering employees for certain issues, delegating leadership roles among certain employees etc.

Growth and promotional opportunities- There must be growth and advancement opportunities in schools to motivate the employees to perform well. Most often, we are faced with the question if there is any opportunity within the organization for growth and promotion. Some employees would like to move forward within their career and embrace the challenge of being promoted to supervisory roles. Those who picture themselves in leadership roles are eager to get the job done required to possess those positions. If they learn that the promotional opportunities are almost impossible, they make their way out of that school when the right time arrives. It is important that charter schools keep their high performing employees and place them in leadership roles when needed.

Responsibility- The employees must hold themselves accountable for their work. The school leaders should give them ownership of their work. They should minimize control but retain accountability.

Meaningfulness of the work- The work itself should be meaningful, interesting and challenging for the employee to perform and to get motivated. Goals setting play an important role here. Employees feel more motivated when they work towards a set of goals created by the entire school team.